Introduction to Philosophy Mr. Pendergast

Rationalists v. Empiricists

Rationalists – Our knowledge of the world is acquired by the use of reason, and our senses are not to be trusted. Believed that we can have knowledge without experience.

Philosopher	Background & Works		Three (3) Main Ideas
Rene Descartes 1596 - 1650	§ Born in France § Educated by Jesuits § Joined the army § Settled in Holland § Discourse on Method § Meditations § Father of “Modern Philosopher” – epistemology – “What ca I know?”	3 Stages in search of “indubitable” premises: (87) 1. Can I trust my senses? NO 2. Am I awake or dreaming? 3. “Malignant Spirit trying to deceive me? THEREFORE: 4. “Cogito ergo sum!”	Ontological Argument for existence of God: (87) (1) In our thoughts we experience an idea of the most perfect being. (2) Existence in reality is more perfect than existence in our thoughts alone. Therefore, (3) the most perfect being exists in reality.	Mind and Matter – “Cartesian Dualism” – (88) The world consists of two different kinds of substance – Mind & Matter
Benedict Spinoza 1632-1677	• Born in Amsterdam • Expelled from Orthodox Jewish community at 24 • Lens grinder • 1673 – offered prof. at Heidelberg Univ., but turned down to philosophize “according to own mind.” • “higher criticism” of scriptures. • Ethics	Science v. Free Will (91) 1. How can there be free will if everything is scientifically determined? Neo and the flour vase? 2. Also – Is there a place for God in such a system?	• Denied dualism – if God – the “uncaused cause” - is infinite, he cannot have boundaries. God is not outside the world, but He is not in the world either: He is the world. (92)	• In a rationally governed society, “every man may think what he likes and say what he thinks.” (94) • We should look at our own lives sub specie aeternitatis (in the eyes of eternity). (94)
Gottfried Leibniz 164-1716	• Invented Calculus, Kinetic energy, Mathematical Logic • Son of Philosophy Prof. • 1673 – offered prof. at U of Leipzig, but turned down to be man of the world • Friendship with King George I of England • Absent minded professor	All truths belong to 2 logical types: either (1) We examine facts to determine whether “synthetic” statements are true, or (2) We can analyze with-out looking outside with “analytic statements.” (97)	Notion of “compossibilities” – why a perfect God has created a world in which there is so much evil. (98)	“Principle of sufficient reason” led to theory of “monads.” (99)

Empiricists - thought we can only be sure of something once we’ve tested it – once we’ve experienced it.

Philosopher	Background	Three (3) Main Ideas
John Locke 1632-1704	• Westminster School – Oxford • Joined opposition to King Charles II • 4 Years in France – Studied Descartes • In Holland wrote Essay Concerning Human Understanding • Escorted Queen Mary home after Glorious Revolution	Theory of knowledge: What are the limits to what is intelligible to humans? (103)	Our senses are the only direct interface between ourselves and reality external to us. (104)	1. “Primary” & “Secondary” qualities of objects (106 – 107) 2. Sovereignty ultimately remains with the people. (107)
George Berkeley 1685-1753	• Protestant Irishman Trinity College, Dublin • Bishop Berkeley • American Colonies – Yale • Oxford – Christ Church	When he said he believed in independent “material substance,” Locke was breaking fundamental principle of empiricism. (111)	What exists are minds and their contents, or subjects and their experiences. No grounds for believing in existence of anything else. (111)	Total reality exists in the mind of God, and infinite spirit, who has created us finite spirits. (111)
David Hume 1711-1776	• le bon David” in France • “Saint David” in Edinburgh • Economist – close friends with Adam Smith • Dialogues Concerning Natural Religions – best work – undermined all the then most attractive arguments for the existence of God	God & “self” - to be justified in claiming the existence of these things, we have to point to evidence from our experience. (113)	Advocated “mitigated scepticism.” (115)	If we can’t be certain of anything, how ridiculous to think we have answer to everything! (116)
Edmund Burke 1729-1797	• Protestant Irishman • Trinity College, Dublin • Law courts I London • Author & Journalist • House of Commons @ 37 • MP is a Rep. not a Del., and should vote according to his own judgment • Reflections on the Revolution in France	A developed society is so big and so complicated that a single mind cannot possibly contain it all and understand it. (118)	The only acceptable mode of political change is organic, not revolutionary. (118)	Great art strives after the infinite, and the infinite, having no bounds, can never be clear or distinct. (119)