Punctuation
Punctuation is used to make the meaning of a sentence clear to the reader. Some marks of punctuation indicate in writing the pauses and stops which the voice makes in speaking. They indicate not only where a pause should come but also how long the pause should be-the comma standing for a slight hesitation, the period for a longer one. Other vocal inflections are conveyed by the question mark and the exclamation point.
A complete statement of the correct uses of all punctuation marks is provided in this chapter and the one that follows, together with exercises to help you fix these uses in your mind. Punctuating exercises is at best an artificial activity, however, and you must be very careful to carry over into your writing the punctuation principles you have learned. Since punctuation is so closely related to meaning, you probably should punctuate as you write, for while you are writing, you continually use punctuation to group certain ideas together and to separate other ideas from each other. On the other hand, many writers prefer to concentrate first on getting their ideas onto paper; then they go back over what they have written and insert whatever punctuation is necessary to make the writing clear to others and conventionally correct. This latter process, known as proofreading, is a very important part of writing. Proofread all of your writing carefully.
Do not overpunctuate. Use a mark of punctuation for only two reasons: (1) because meaning demands it, or (2) because conventional usage requires it.
End Marks and Commas
END MARKS
30a. A statement is followed by a period.
EXAMPLE: Summer vacation begins June
30b. An abbreviation is followed by a period.
EXAMPLES: Ave. Dec.
*NOTE* Abbreviations in the metric system are often written without periods.
30c. A question is followed by a question mark.
(1) Distinguish between a statement containing an indirect question and a sentence which asks a question directly.
Do you know what the assignment is? [a direct question-followed by a question mark]
(2) Polite requests in question form (frequently used in business letters) may be followed by a period; a question mark would, of course, be perfectly correct.
EXAMPLES: Will you please ship this order three weeks before Christmas.
(3) A question mark should be placed inside quotation marks when the quotation is a question. Otherwise, it should be placed outside the quotation marks.
Did you say, "Meet me at eight o'clock"? [The quotation is not a question. The whole sentence, however, is a question.]
30d. An exclamation is followed by an exclamation point.
EXAMPLES: What a beautiful dress! How expensive! You're joking!
(1) Many exclamations begin either with "What a . . ." or "How . . ." as in the first two of the preceding examples. When you begin a sentence with these words, check your end mark carefully.
(2) An interjection at the beginning of a sentence is usually followed by a comma.
CUSTOMARY: Ah, there you have me!
(3) An exclamation point should be placed inside quotation marks when the quotation is an exclamation. Otherwise, it should be placed outside the quotation marks.
How foolish of him to say in the fifth inning, "The
game is won"!
30e. An imperative sentence may be followed by either a period or an exclamation point, depending upon the force intended.
EXAMPLES: Please reply by return mail.
EXERCISE 1.
Many periods and all exclamation and question marks have been omitted from the following passage. Copy in a column on your paper all words which you think should be followed by end marks. After each word write the end mark required. If a new sentence should begin after the end mark, write the first word of the sentence, giving it a capital letter. Before each word write the number of the line in which it appears.
THE COMMA
The comma—the most frequently used mark of punctuation—is used mainly to group words that belong together and to separate those that do not. Some other uses have little to do with meaning but are simply customary ways of punctuating sentences.
Items in a Series
30f. Use commas to separate items in a series.
There were books on the desk, posters on the wall, and clothing on the floor.
*NOTE* Do not place a comma before the first item or after the last item in a series.
CORRECT: During the summer the workers had installed a new gymnasium floor, an improved heating system, and green chalkboards in the high school building.
It is permissible to omit the comma before the and joining the last two items in a series if the comma is not needed to make the meaning clear. There are some constructions in which the inclusion or omission of this comma affects the meaning of the sentence.
American folk songs may be classified in the following categories: marching songs, work songs, ballads, hymns and spirituals. [four categories]
*NOTE* Words customarily used in pairs are set off as one item in a series: bag and baggage, pen and ink, hat and coat, pork and beans, bread and butter, etc.
(1) If all items in a series are joined by and or or, do not use commas to separate them.
EXAMPLE: The weather forecaster predicted rain or sleet or snow.
(2) Independent clauses in a series are usually separated by a semicolon. Short independent clauses, however, may be separated by commas.
EXAMPLE: We walked, we played, we ate, and we gained weight.
30g. Use a comma to separate two or more adjectives preceding a noun.
EXAMPLES: She is an alert, vivacious girl.
(1) Do not use a comma before the final adjective in a series if the adjective is thought of as part of the noun.
INCORRECT: It was a cold, raw, dark, November day.
CORRECT: She is a bright, charming, talented young woman. [Young woman is thought of as one word.]
(2) If one of the words in a series modifies another word in the series, do not separate them by a comma.
EXAMPLE: He wore a bright blue blazer.
Comma Between Independent Clauses
30h. Use a comma before and, but, or, nor, for, yet when they join independent clauses, unless the clauses are very short.
The first two acts were slow-moving, but the third act was full of action and suspense.
You go ahead and I'll follow. [independent clauses too short to require punctuation]
When the conjunction joins two verbs, not two main clauses, a comma is not used.
EXAMPLES: I gave some good advice to Gerald and got some
*NOTE* You are allowed some freedom in the application of this rule. Many writers use the comma before these conjunctions—as they use the comma before and between the last two items in a series—only when necessary to keep the meaning clear.
NOT CLEAR: I carved the turkey and the family watched.
CLEAR: I carved the turkey, and the family watched.
CLEAR: I didn't know whether or not to wait longer, for the letter carrier had brought no word from you.
As you can see from the preceding examples, a reader may easily be confused if the comma is omitted. This is especially true of the comma before the conjunction for, which should always be preceded by a comma when it means because.
EXERCISE 2. The following sentences cover rules 30f-h. Number your paper 1-15. Copy after the proper number the words in each sentence which should be followed by a comma, placing the comma after the word. Since the meaning of some sentences may be determined by the punctuation, you should be prepared to explain the punctuation you use.
1. The police searched everywhere, but there were no finger- prints to be found.
2. Mr. Feinstein asked the waiter for coffee beans and ham and eggs.
3. States included in the Japanese beetle area are New York New Jersey Maryland and Delaware.
4. I played the melody on the guitar and the electric bass provided the rhythm.
5. Everyone turned to watch the large pale yellow moon.
6. This policy covers medical expenses iron-lung rental hospitalization and transportation to a center of treatment.
7. The train pulled out and left me in a strange town without my luggage hat and coat or credentials.
S. The school administration is responsible for these disciplinary problems stem from rules made in the office.
9. This poet did not use capital letters and her punctuation was frequently unconventional.
10. The wagon train was approaching lonely wild country.
11. The wind froze us the rain soaked us and the waves tossed us.
12. We are learning more and more about space through our new and stronger telescopes our huge radar installation and our instrument-packed space probes.
13. She found that it was a friendly unsophisticated little town that she had chosen for her home.
14. Soldiers were stationed at frequent intervals along the curb and the sidewalks behind them were jammed with onlookers.
15. She is pretty tall and blonde; her sister is small and dark and beautiful.
Nonessential Elements
30i. Use commas to set off nonessential clauses and nonessential participial phrases.
A nonessential (nonrestrictive) clause is a subordinate clause that is not essential to the meaning of the sentence but merely adds an idea to the sentence.
The basic meaning of this sentence is Joan Thomas will go to Mt. Holyoke in September. The subordinate clause does not affect this basic meaning; it merely adds an idea to the sentence. It is a nonessential clause because it does not limit in any way the word it modifies—Joan Thomas. Clauses which modify proper nouns are nearly always nonessential. The opposite of a nonessential clause is an essential (restrictive) clause.
Here the subordinate clause is essential to the sentence, for without it the sentence would mean something else: Joan Thomas is the only senior. The subordinate clause limits the meaning of senior-senior who won scholarships to three colleges.
Study the following examples of essential and non- essential clauses until you understand the terms. Note the punctuation: essential--no punctuation; nonessential--set off by commas.
ESSENTIAL: The city which interests me most is Hollywood.
NONESSENTIAL: Bismarck, which is the capital of North Dakota,
ESSENTIAL: The man who spoke to me is my science teacher. NONESSENTIAL: Mr. Urbon, who is my science teacher, spoke to
Sometimes a clause may be interpreted as either essential or nonessential. In such instances the writer must decide which interpretation to give to the clause and punctuate it accordingly.
Dave took his problem to the librarian, who is an authority on reference books. [interpreted as nonessential]
We may assume from the first sentence, which contains an essential clause, that there is more than one librarian. Dave chose the one who is an authority on reference books.
From the second sentence we may assume that there is only one librarian and that the librarian is an authority on reference books.
My aunt, who works at the Union Trust Company, lives in New Jersey. [I have only one aunt, no others.]
EXERCISE 3.
Some of the sentences in this exercise contain essential clauses; others contain nonessential clauses. Number your paper 1-20. If the italicized clause is essential, write E after the proper number; if it is nonessential, write Commas to indicate that you would use commas in this sentence.
1. Friends who do favors for you may expect you to do favors for them.
2. The Welcoming Committee who made us feel at home in a strange school helped us through the first confusing days of the term.
3. Our new Volkswagen Passat which my parents bought in Germany is a four- door model.
4. The BMW which Mr. Burton drives is like the one we saw on television.
6. Her new sweater which was a Christmas gift is two sizes too large.
7. People who are nervous do not make good drivers.
8. Men who are sometimes thought to be the stronger sex cannot stand pain as well as women.
9. American cities that are outwardly very much alike may show distinctive characteristics on more intimate acquaintance.
10. Cities that have great financial problems levy a sales tax.
11. The Sault Sainte Marie Canals which connect Lake Superior and Lake Huron would be a prime target in wartime.
12. I do not like people who litter public parks.
13. These antiquated tariffs which were necessary during the depression are shutting off foreign markets from American manufacturers.
15. The Hudson's Bay Company which is one of the oldest trading firms in the world was founded in 1670.
16. Leontyne Price who is well-known for her role as Cleopatra is one of the world's leading sopranos.
17. The book that I have read for this report is a novel about World War 11.
18. On my return I found that the people that I had expected to see had moved away.
19. Lucy French who does her own gardening says she exhausts herself trying to get rid of weeds.
20. All the tickets that had been sold were recalled.
A participial phrase is a group of related words containing a participle. Present participles end in --ing; past participles of regular verbs end in --ed or --d.
Like a nonessential clause, a nonessential participial phrase is set off by commas because it is not necessary to the meaning of the sentence.
NONESSENTIAL: My little brother, playing in the street, was struck by a car.
ESSENTIAL: A child playing in the street may be struck by a car.
NONESSENTIAL: Our dog, frightened by the thunder, hid in a closet.
ESSENTIAL: Animals frightened by thunder often try to hide.
ESSENTIAL: I watched the crowd dispersing rapidly in all directions.
EXERCISE 4. This exercise covers all comma rules given up to this point in the chapter. After the proper number write all words in the sentence that should be followed by a comma. Write the comma after each word. Be prepared to explain your answers.
1. Any student who wishes to join the gymnastics team will have to excel in floor exercises on the balance beam and on the uneven parallel bars.
2. The sophomores decorated the gym and the juniors provided the refreshments.
3. Anyone taking the basic photography course will learn how to shoot close-ups portraits and still lifes.
4. The judge leaving her chambers stopped to talk to some court reporters who had gathered around her.
5. We got encouragement from everyone but our parents helped us most of all.
6. Careful writers distinguish between uninterested which means "indifferent" and disinterested which means "unbiased."
7. Any student wishing to sing act or perform on Class Day should sign up before tomorrow which is the deadline.
8. Governor Bush whose speeches are filled with cliches appeared on television last night asking people to "tighten their belts bite the bullet pull their own weight and give till it hurts."
9. A sad-looking mongrel which had followed me halfway home suddenly trotted up to me and staring at me soulfully started to lick my hand.
10. A story which appeared in yesterday's newspaper was about the Boston Bruins which is my favorite hockey team.
Introductory Elements
30i. Use a comma after certain introductory elements.
(1) Use a comma after words such as well, yes, no, and why when they begin a sentence.
EXAMPLES: Yes, you were elected.
Why, the entire argument is false!
(2) Use a comma after an introductory participial phrase.
EXAMPLE: Behaving like a spoiled child, he pouted and sulked.
*NOTE* Do not confuse a gerund ending in –ing and used as the subject of the sentence with an introductory participial phrase.
Washing and polishing the car, I developed sore muscles. [introductory participial phrase—followed by a comma]
(3) Use a comma after a succession of introductory prepositional phrases.
*NOTE* A single introductory prepositional phrase need not be followed by a comma unless it is parenthetical (by the way, on the contrary, etc.) or the comma is necessary to prevent confusion.
EXAMPLES: By the way, I had a letter from Emily Post.
In the morning I am never wide awake.
(4) Use a comma after an introductory adverb clause.
An adverbial clause at the end of a sentence is not usually set off:
EXERCISE 5.
This exercise covers all comma rules to this point in the chapter. Number your paper 1-10. Copy after the proper number the words in each sentence which should be followed by a comma, placing a comma after each word.
1. One look at the assignment is not enough for most students will need to study it carefully.
2. When we had finished playing the piano was rolled offstage to make room for the next act.
3. On the afternoon of the first day of school the halls were still filled with lost confused or frightened freshmen.
4. Well if you need help please don't hesitate to ask me or Mr. Tillman or Mrs. Ebbitt.
5. In the second half of the third period Flynn evaded the defense caught a twenty-yard pass and raced into the end zone.
6. Speaking in assembly yesterday Mr. Philip urged students to obey the new rules governing conduct in the cafeteria the school corridor and the parking lot.
7. Having studied the tax proposals of both political parties, Governor Winthrop who was not satisfied rejected both proposals and then presented a new plan.
8. Marchers in the long orderly picket line appeared to have the support of everyone in the crowd but the police carrying out their orders broke up the demonstration.
9. Legitimate theaters are prospering in many American cities, but the New York stage is still the goal of young actors dancers and musicians.
10. When Bill was driving our truck lurched unexplainably and we wondered whether he was failing asleep at the wheel.
Interrupters
30k. Use commas to set off expressions that Interrupt the sentence.
To set off an expression takes two commas unless the expression comes first or last in the sentence.
(1) Appositives and appositive phrases are usually set off by commas.
An appositive is a word—with or without modifiers—that follows a noun or pronoun and identifies or explains it. An appositive phrase consists of an appositive and its modifiers.
When an appositive is so closely related to the word it modifies that it appears to be part of that word, no comma is necessary. An appositive of this kind is called a restrictive appositive. Usually it is one word.
EXAMPLES: Her cousin Raquel
Your friend Jean
Catherine the Great
The conjunction and
(2) Words used in direct address are set off by commas.
EXAMPLES: I don't know, Alice, where your brother is.
Your grades are disappointing, my friend.
(3) Parenthetical expressions are set off by commas.
The following expressions are commonly used parenthetically: I believe (think, know, hope, etc.), I am sure, on the contrary, on the other hand, after all, by the way, incidentally, in face, indeed, naturally, of course, in my opinion, for example, however, nevertheless, to tell the truth.
EXAMPLES: My parents will, I am sure, let me have the car to- night.
On the contrary, jogging is relaxing.
Jenkins was doing things the hard way, naturally.
Knowledge of the above rule and of the expressions commonly used parenthetically is helpful in punctuating, but you should understand that your intention is what determines the punctuation that you use. If you wish the reader to pause, to regard an expression as parenthetical, set it off; if not, leave it unpunctuated. Sometimes, however, the placement of the expression in the sentence determines the punctuation. Study the following examples, noting in which ones the comma is a matter of choice and in which ones the placement of expression governs the punctuation. All the examples given illustrate standard usage.
This is, indeed, a great piece of news.
Indeed, this is a great piece of news. [comma required by
placement]
We therefore agreed to sign the petition.
We, therefore, agreed to sign the petition.
We agreed, therefore, to sign the petition. [comma required
by placement]
I hope this raise in salary will relieve your financial distress. [no comma because of placement]
This raise in salary will, I hope, relieve your financial distress. [comma required by placement]
EXERCISE 6. The following exercise covers all comma rules to this point in the chapter. Number your paper 1-20. Copy after the proper number the words in each sentence that should be followed by a comma, placing a comma after each word. Write C if the item is correct.
1. The final act a general free-for-all had the first-night audience a dignified crowd holding their sides.
2. Indeed if I knew the answer my friend would not be asking you for it.
3. The authors of this book a volume of bitter criticism have in my opinion been most unfair.
4. This painting Betty is by Emilio Sanchez an artist bom in Cuba.
5. Russian artist on the other hand must promote Communist doctrines for everyone in Russia works for the state.
6. Our plan I knew would have to succeed for there would be no second chance.
7. The nineteenth-century book El Jibaro which was written by Manuel A. Alonso is by the way considered the first Puerto Rican classic.
8. Imprisoned without warning or explanation the two reporters were held if I remember correctly for two months, in spite of efforts by England France and the United States to effect their release.
9. If you are prompt in getting your order in our office will guarantee delivery before Christmas which is only ten days off.
10. You should understand my good friend that much as I should like to do so I cannot give money to every organization that thinks it needs help.
11. Passengers riding in the front of the wrecked bus were the ones who were most severely injured.
12. This school composed largely of students from farm homes must offer courses in agriculture the occupation that most of the students will enter.
13. Looking for a sports car at a bargain price Henry who is car-crazy spent the day hanging around the North Country Motor Company which buys sells and services all makes of foreign cars.
14. Lauren and Jim left alone in the house immediately raided the
refrigerator which was full of tasty herring snacks for the party that Kay's mother was giving the next day.
15. Napoleon's brothers Joseph and Lucien tried to prevent him from selling Louisiana, but Richard Livingston and James Monroe the American representatives succeeded in making the purchase.
16. Well having tried all morning to reach me the girls delivered the message and I gave them a written reply which I hoped would be satisfactory.
17. In spite of their parents' warning Amy and Joan who should have known better stayed up reading the night before the test and didn't get to bed they admitted until two o'clock.
18. Taking an afternoon stroll in the park, my little sister Sally befriended a retriever a spaniel, and a Scottish Deer Hound named Isabel that followed her home.
19. Before you start taking anything apart Maria I hope you will be sure that you can if necessary put it together again.
20. When Jimmie had finished the cake and pie were all gone and
left untouched were the steak potatoes and salad.
Conventional Uses
301. Use a comma in certain conventional situations.
EXAMPLES: Our sentimental ideas was to hold a class reunion on
June 20, 2020, at Brunswick.
Write to me at 222 Maher Avenue, Greenwich, Connecticut,
after the first of March.
Their quadruplets were born on Friday, April 13, 1066, in
Coventry, England.
*NOTE* When only the month and day are given, no punctuation is necessary.
It was on September 6 that we began school.
When the items are joined by a preposition, do not use commas.
(2) Use a comma after the salutation of a friendly letter and after the closing of any letter.
EXAMPLES: Dear Rhonda, Sincerely yours,
(3) Use a comma after a name followed by Jr., Sr., Ph.D., etc.
EXAMPLES: Frank Lehman, Jr. Hazel Carby, Ph.D.
Unnecessary Commas
30m. Do not use unnecessary commas.
Commas are not to be sprinkled about in a composition as if they were salt, merely to add flavor. The tendency of modern writers is to use commas sparingly. You should be able to show either that the commas you use help the reader to understand what you have written or that they are required by custom-as in a date or address, for example. Using commas just for the fun of it is as bad as not using them when they are necessary. Your teacher will surely question your competence if you use them when they cannot be justified.
SUMMARY OF USES OF THE COMMA
30f. Use commas to separate items in a series.
30g. Use a comma to separate two or more adjectives preceding a noun.
30i. Use commas to set off nonessential clauses and nonessential participial phrases.
30j. Use a comma after certain introductory elements.
(2) After an introductory participial phrase
(3) After a succession of introductory prepositional phrases
(4) After an introductory adverb clause
30k. Use commas to set off expressions that interrupt the sentence.
(2) Words in direct address
(3) Parenthetical expressions
30l. Use a comma in certain conventional situations.
30m. Do not use unnecessary commas.
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
Punctuation II:
Other Marks of Punctuation
Although the marks of punctuation treated in this chapter are used less frequently than the period and comma, they are often important. Just as you have learned to follow certain conventions in grammar and usage and spelling, you should observe the conventional uses of the punctuation marks described in this chapter.
THE SEMICOLON
31a. Use a semicolon between independent clauses not joined by and, but, or, nor, for, get.
Take with you only indispensable things; leave behind all heavy and bulky items.
A writer must have some basis for deciding whether to use two independent clauses with a semicolon between them, or two sentences with a period (and capital letter). In most writing, the division into sentences is preferable. A semicolon is used only when the ideas in the two clauses are so closely related that a period would make too distinct a break between them.
31b. Use a semicolon between independent clauses joined by such words as for example, for instance, that is, besides, accordingly, moreover, nevertheless, furthermore, otherwise, therefore, however, consequently, instead, hence.
Tension rose rapidly during yesterday's meeting; nevertheless, most of the Council members remained calm.
Matters involving Egypt and Israel were discussed; therefore representatives from these countries were invited to attend the preliminary planning sessions.
When the connectives mentioned in this rule are placed at the beginning of a clause, the use of a comma after them is frequently a matter of taste. When they are clearly parenthetical (interrupters) they are followed by a comma. The words for example, for instance, and that is are always followed by a comma. The word however is almost always followed by a comma.
Most of the words listed in this rule, however, are rarely used at the beginning of a clause. They are usually placed later in the clause.
31c. A semicolon (rather than a comma) may be needed to separate independent clauses if there are commas within the clauses.
*NOTE* As suggested in Rule 3lc by the words "may be needed," you are allowed considerable leeway in applying this rule. When there are -only one or two commas in the independent clauses, the semicolon is not needed. It is required when there are so many commas, as in the example above, that the sentence would be confusing without the semicolon because the reader could not immediately see where the first clause ended.
31d. Use a semicolon between items in a series if the items contain commas.
EXAMPLE:
THE COLON
31e. Use a colon to mean "note what follows."
(1) Use a colon before a list of items, especially after expressions like as follows and the following.
EXAMPLES:
You will probably have to answer the following questions: How long have you been unemployed? Why did you leave your last position? What experience have you had? [list introduced by "the following"]
*NOTE* When a list comes immediately after a verb or a preposition, do not use a colon.
EXAMPLES:
He has always had an interest in snakes, lizards, mice, and other small animals. [List follows the preposition in]
(2) Use a colon before a long, formal statement or quotation.
EXAMPLE:
(3) Use a colon between independent clauses when the second clause explains or restates the idea in the first.
31f. Use a colon in certain conventional situations.
(1) Use a colon between the hour and the minute when you write the time.
EXAMPLE: 4:30 P.M.
(2) Use a colon between chapter and verse in referring to passages from the Bible.
EXAMPLE: John 3:16
(3) Use a colon between volume and number or between volume and page number of a periodical.
EXAMPLES: Harper's 198:12 [volume and number]
(4) Use a colon after the salutation of a business letter.
EXAMPLES: Dear Ms. Terwilliger:
ITALICS
31g. Use italics (or underlining for hand-written work) for titles of books, periodicals, works of art, ships, etc.
EXAMPLES: The Red Badge of Courage
Time Magazine
the Mayflower, the Hannah Boden, Old Ironsides
The use of quotation marks for titles is now generally limited to short compositions such as short stories and short poems and to parts of publications; the titles of the publications themselves are underlined.
The words a, an, the, written before a title, are underlined only when they are part of the title of a book, article, etc. Before the names of magazines and newspapers, they are not underlined within a composition.
31h. Use italics (or underlining) for words, letters, and figures referred to as such and for foreign words.
I had to look up the meaning of such Latin terms as carpe diem and caveat emptor.
EXERCISE 1.
This exercise covers semicolons, colons, and italics. Number your paper 1-10. After the proper number copy from the sentence words and numbers that should be followed by a semicolon or a colon and write the punctuation after each. Copy and underline all words that should be italicized.
I. Today, fewer than 10 percent of Americans work on farms one hundred years ago, a majority of Americans worked on farms.
2. The following band members can play two instruments. Tony Winch, cornet and trumpet Sallie Davis, saxophone and clarinet and Sara Petterson, drums and marimba.
3. The Daily Blade often devotes its front page to sensational stories murders, robberies, catastrophes, kidnappings, and juicy scandals.
4. The Ten Commandments are in the Old Testament, Exodus 20 1-17 however, the Beatitudes are in the New Testament, Matthew 5 3-1 1.
5. Our sailing party, which consisted of three women and four men, went aboard the Sealark at 8 30 but we had to wait until 9 30 before our skipper, the wind, and the tides would permit us to sail.
6. Ms. Gilhooley frequently gives assignments in current magazines for example, a typical assignment would run as follows the Atlantic, 210 41-6 Senior Scholastic, 78 4 Commonweal, 74 17.
7. According to an editorial in the Times-News, the election indicates a change in the public's attitude toward tariffs the candidate who favored protective tariffs was defeated.
8. Mrs. Johnson had me revise my composition three times first, to correct the spelling second, to revise some sentences third, to remove a so's and and so's.
9. The smaller colleges are in a difficult position their income has been cut, but their expenses have increased.
10. At the bookstore I bought the following gifts a book of essays by Joan Didion for my father, a framed Mary Cassatt print, entitled Mother and Child, for my mother and for my sister, a new album called Folksong Favorites.
QUOTATION MARKS
31i. Use quotation marks to enclose a direct quotation--a person's exact words.
Do not use quotation marks to enclose an indirect quotation—one that does not give a person's exact words.
Enclose means to place quotation marks at both the beginning and the end of a quotation. Omission of quotation marks at the end of a quotation is a common error.
(1) A direct quotation begins with a capital letter.
EXAMPLE: I heard her say, "Complete the lesson at home."
EXAMPLE: One critic called the book "an appalling waste of paper."
(2) When a quoted sentence is divided into two parts by an interrupting expression such as he said or Mother asked, the second part begins with a small letter.
EXAMPLES: "Go home," he pleaded, "before you cause more trouble."
If the second part of a broken quotation is a new sentence, it begins with a capital letter.
(3) A direct quotation is set off from the rest of the sentence by commas or by a question mark or an exclamation point.
EXAMPLES: She said, "We can reach them by telephone."
*NOTE* If the quotation is only a phrase, do not set it off by
(4) Other marks of punctuation when used with quotation marks are placed according to the following rules:
1. Commas and periods are always placed inside the closing quotation marks. (Except when using parenthetical notation!)
EXAMPLE: "I know," he said, "that we can finish the job today."
2. Semicolons and colons are always placed outside the closing quotation marks.
The following are what Mabel Symmonds describes as "highbrow reading": Homer, Shakespeare, Flaubert, and Maupassant.
3. Question marks and exclamation points are placed in- side the closing quotation marks if the quotation is a question or an exclamation; otherwise they are placed outside.
EXAMPLES: "Are the players ready?" asked the referee.
Were you surprised when he said, "Pull over"?
How disappointing it was to hear him say, "your train has left"!
No more than one comma or one end mark is used at the end of a quotation.
CORRECT: Have you asked Nancy Reagan who said, "Life is a flight of uncarpeted stairs"?
INCORRECT: Did you ever ask yourself, "Where will I be ten years from now?"?
CORRECT: Did you ever ask yourself, "Where will I be ten years from now?"
(5) When you write dialogue, begin a new paragraph every time the speaker changes.
"Hi, Sally. How'd you like that French exam?" Betty was trying to change the subject fast.
"Oh, who cares about French?" she said. "Have you heard about Sandra and Bob?"
"Sally," I said in a feeble attempt to sidetrack her, "where did you get that sweater? I've never seen one like it."
"Say, what’s going on here?" Sally persisted. "I'm trying to tell you a story I heard about Sandra and that Bob Sharp guy and—oh, hello, Sandra. I didn't know you were here!"
"Serves you right, you gossip!" Sandra spat out, approaching menacingly. "Now what's that story?"
(6) When a quoted passage consists of more than one paragraph, place quotation marks at the beginning of each paragraph and at the end of the entire passage, not at the end of each paragraph.
*NOTE* Usually such a long quotation will be set off from the rest of the paper by indention and single spacing. In such a case, no quotation marks will be necessary.
(7) Use single quotation marks to enclose a quotation within a quotation.
31j. Use quotation marks to enclose titles of chapters, articles, short stories, poems, songs, and other parts of books and periodicals.
EXAMPLES: Read Chapter 37, "Victorian Poetry."
*NOTE* Book titles and names of magazines are indicated by italics or underlining.
31k. Use quotation marks to enclose slang words, technical terms, and other expressions that are unusual in standard English.
Use this device sparingly.
These units of speech are referred to by linguists as "phonemes."
Because his first name was Fiorello, Mayor La Guardia was known as the "little flower."
EXERCISE 2. Copy the following sentences, inserting quotation marks and other required punctuation.
1. How many of you Mrs. Martinez asked have studied a foreign language for more than two years.
2. Nice try Donna was what the coach said.
4. Where have you been she asked.
5. Someone once asked Bernard Shaw how old he was, and he answered I'm as old as my tongue and a few years older than my teeth.
6. To whom was Stendhal referring asked Mrs. Ross when he dedicated his novels to the happy few.
7. Was it Elizabeth Browning said Sandra who wrote the poem Shall I Compare Thee to a Summer's Day?
8. Cast off shouted the captain we're bound for Rio.
9. Would you let us hand in our research papers next week Ms. Lewis we asked none of the books we need are in the library.
10. Alice whispered thank you for lending me the article Is There Life on Other Planets? Barbara.
THE APOSTROPHE
311. To form the possessive case of a singular noun, add an apostrophe and an S. This is true REGARDLESS of its ending—even if the word ends in s, z, or x—whether sounded or silent.
EXAMPLES: Glenda’s opinion
Gus’s hat
Kansas’s finest funeral parlor
Degas’s famous ballerina statue
Camus’s essays
Jacques’s accent
(1) To form the possessive case of a plural noun ending in s, add only the apostrophe.
EXAMPLES: The girls’ gymnasium
*NOTE* The few plural nouns that do not end in s form the
EXAMPLES: Women’s fashions
(2) Personal pronouns in the possessive case (his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs, and the relative pronoun whose) do not require an apostrophe.
INCORRECT: I thought the scarf was her's.
CORRECT: I thought the scarf was hers.
INCORRECT: You have seen baseball at it's best.
CORRECT: You have seen baseball at its best.
INCORRECT: Do you know who's book this is?
CORRECT: Do you know whose book this is?
(3) Indefinite pronouns (one, everyone, everybody, etc.) in the possessive case require an apostrophe and an s.
EXAMPLES: Everyone’s prediction was wrong.
EXERCISE 3. Number your paper 1-10. After the proper number, write both the singular and plural possessive of the italicized word.