Punctuation

Punctuation is used to make the meaning of a sentence clear to the reader. Some marks of punctuation indicate in writing the pauses and stops which the voice makes in speaking. They indicate not only where a pause should come but also how long the pause should be-the comma standing for a slight hesitation, the period for a longer one. Other vocal inflections are conveyed by the question mark and the exclamation point.

A complete statement of the correct uses of all punctuation marks is provided in this chapter and the one that follows, together with exercises to help you fix these uses in your mind. Punctuating exercises is at best an artificial activity, however, and you must be very careful to carry over into your writing the punctuation principles you have learned. Since punctuation is so closely related to meaning, you probably should punctuate as you write, for while you are writing, you continually use punctuation to group certain ideas together and to separate other ideas from each other. On the other hand, many writers prefer to concentrate first on getting their ideas onto paper; then they go back over what they have written and insert whatever punctuation is necessary to make the writing clear to others and conventionally correct. This latter process, known as proofreading, is a very important part of writing. Proofread all of your writing carefully.

Do not overpunctuate. Use a mark of punctuation for only two reasons: (1) because meaning demands it, or (2) because conventional usage requires it.

EXAMPLE: Summer vacation begins June

EXAMPLES: Ave. Dec.

*NOTE* Abbreviations in the metric system are often written without periods.

EXAMPLES: Will you please ship this order three weeks before Christmas.

EXAMPLES: What a beautiful dress! How expensive! You're joking!

(1) Many exclamations begin either with "What a . . ." or "How . . ." as in the first two of the preceding examples. When you begin a sentence with these words, check your end mark carefully.

(2) An interjection at the beginning of a sentence is usually followed by a comma.

CUSTOMARY: Ah, there you have me!

EXAMPLES: Please reply by return mail.

Many periods and all exclamation and question marks have been omitted from the following passage. Copy in a column on your paper all words which you think should be followed by end marks. After each word write the end mark required. If a new sentence should begin after the end mark, write the first word of the sentence, giving it a capital letter. Before each word write the number of the line in which it appears.

The comma—the most frequently used mark of punctuation—is used mainly to group words that belong together and to separate those that do not. Some other uses have little to do with meaning but are simply customary ways of punctuating sentences.

30f. Use commas to separate items in a series.

*NOTE* Do not place a comma before the first item or after the last item in a series.

It is permissible to omit the comma before the and joining the last two items in a series if the comma is not needed to make the meaning clear. There are some constructions in which the inclusion or omission of this comma affects the meaning of the sentence.

*NOTE* Words customarily used in pairs are set off as one item in a series: bag and baggage, pen and ink, hat and coat, pork and beans, bread and butter, etc.

(1) If all items in a series are joined by and or or, do not use commas to separate them.

EXAMPLE: The weather forecaster predicted rain or sleet or snow.

(2) Independent clauses in a series are usually separated by a semicolon. Short independent clauses, however, may be separated by commas.

EXAMPLE: We walked, we played, we ate, and we gained weight.

EXAMPLES: She is an alert, vivacious girl.

INCORRECT: It was a cold, raw, dark, November day.

EXAMPLE: He wore a bright blue blazer.

When the conjunction joins two verbs, not two main clauses, a comma is not used.

EXAMPLES: I gave some good advice to Gerald and got some

*NOTE* You are allowed some freedom in the application of this rule. Many writers use the comma before these conjunctions—as they use the comma before and between the last two items in a series—only when necessary to keep the meaning clear.

NOT CLEAR: I carved the turkey and the family watched.

CLEAR: I carved the turkey, and the family watched.

As you can see from the preceding examples, a reader may easily be confused if the comma is omitted. This is especially true of the comma before the conjunction for, which should always be preceded by a comma when it means because.

EXERCISE 2. The following sentences cover rules 30f-h. Number your paper 1-15. Copy after the proper number the words in each sentence which should be followed by a comma, placing the comma after the word. Since the meaning of some sentences may be determined by the punctuation, you should be prepared to explain the punctuation you use.

1. The police searched everywhere, but there were no finger- prints to be found.

2. Mr. Feinstein asked the waiter for coffee beans and ham and eggs.

3. States included in the Japanese beetle area are New York New Jersey Maryland and Delaware.

4. I played the melody on the guitar and the electric bass provided the rhythm.

5. Everyone turned to watch the large pale yellow moon.

6. This policy covers medical expenses iron-lung rental hospitalization and transportation to a center of treatment.

7. The train pulled out and left me in a strange town without my luggage hat and coat or credentials.

S. The school administration is responsible for these disciplinary problems stem from rules made in the office.

9. This poet did not use capital letters and her punctuation was frequently unconventional.

10. The wagon train was approaching lonely wild country.

11. The wind froze us the rain soaked us and the waves tossed us.

12. We are learning more and more about space through our new and stronger telescopes our huge radar installation and our instrument-packed space probes.

13. She found that it was a friendly unsophisticated little town that she had chosen for her home.

14. Soldiers were stationed at frequent intervals along the curb and the sidewalks behind them were jammed with onlookers.

15. She is pretty tall and blonde; her sister is small and dark and beautiful.

A nonessential (nonrestrictive) clause is a subordinate clause that is not essential to the meaning of the sentence but merely adds an idea to the sentence.

The basic meaning of this sentence is Joan Thomas will go to Mt. Holyoke in September. The subordinate clause does not affect this basic meaning; it merely adds an idea to the sentence. It is a nonessential clause because it does not limit in any way the word it modifies—Joan Thomas. Clauses which modify proper nouns are nearly always nonessential. The opposite of a nonessential clause is an essential (restrictive) clause.

Here the subordinate clause is essential to the sentence, for without it the sentence would mean something else: Joan Thomas is the only senior. The subordinate clause limits the meaning of senior-senior who won scholarships to three colleges.

Study the following examples of essential and non- essential clauses until you understand the terms. Note the punctuation: essential--no punctuation; nonessential--set off by commas.

ESSENTIAL: The city which interests me most is Hollywood.

NONESSENTIAL: Bismarck, which is the capital of North Dakota,

ESSENTIAL: The man who spoke to me is my science teacher. NONESSENTIAL: Mr. Urbon, who is my science teacher, spoke to

Sometimes a clause may be interpreted as either essential or nonessential. In such instances the writer must decide which interpretation to give to the clause and punctuate it accordingly.

We may assume from the first sentence, which contains an essential clause, that there is more than one librarian. Dave chose the one who is an authority on reference books.

From the second sentence we may assume that there is only one librarian and that the librarian is an authority on reference books.

Some of the sentences in this exercise contain essential clauses; others contain nonessential clauses. Number your paper 1-20. If the italicized clause is essential, write E after the proper number; if it is nonessential, write Commas to indicate that you would use commas in this sentence.

1. Friends who do favors for you may expect you to do favors for them.

2. The Welcoming Committee who made us feel at home in a strange school helped us through the first confusing days of the term.

3. Our new Volkswagen Passat which my parents bought in Germany is a four- door model.

4. The BMW which Mr. Burton drives is like the one we saw on television.

6. Her new sweater which was a Christmas gift is two sizes too large.

7. People who are nervous do not make good drivers.

8. Men who are sometimes thought to be the stronger sex cannot stand pain as well as women.

9. American cities that are outwardly very much alike may show distinctive characteristics on more intimate acquaintance.

10. Cities that have great financial problems levy a sales tax.

11. The Sault Sainte Marie Canals which connect Lake Superior and Lake Huron would be a prime target in wartime.

12. I do not like people who litter public parks.

13. These antiquated tariffs which were necessary during the depression are shutting off foreign markets from American manufacturers.

15. The Hudson's Bay Company which is one of the oldest trading firms in the world was founded in 1670.

16. Leontyne Price who is well-known for her role as Cleopatra is one of the world's leading sopranos.

17. The book that I have read for this report is a novel about World War 11.

18. On my return I found that the people that I had expected to see had moved away.

19. Lucy French who does her own gardening says she exhausts herself trying to get rid of weeds.

20. All the tickets that had been sold were recalled.

A participial phrase is a group of related words containing a participle. Present participles end in --ing; past participles of regular verbs end in --ed or --d.

Like a nonessential clause, a nonessential participial phrase is set off by commas because it is not necessary to the meaning of the sentence.

NONESSENTIAL: My little brother, playing in the street, was struck by a car.

ESSENTIAL: A child playing in the street may be struck by a car.

NONESSENTIAL: Our dog, frightened by the thunder, hid in a closet.

ESSENTIAL: Animals frightened by thunder often try to hide.

ESSENTIAL: I watched the crowd dispersing rapidly in all directions.

EXERCISE 4. This exercise covers all comma rules given up to this point in the chapter. After the proper number write all words in the sentence that should be followed by a comma. Write the comma after each word. Be prepared to explain your answers.

1. Any student who wishes to join the gymnastics team will have to excel in floor exercises on the balance beam and on the uneven parallel bars.

2. The sophomores decorated the gym and the juniors provided the refreshments.

3. Anyone taking the basic photography course will learn how to shoot close-ups portraits and still lifes.

4. The judge leaving her chambers stopped to talk to some court reporters who had gathered around her.

5. We got encouragement from everyone but our parents helped us most of all.

6. Careful writers distinguish between uninterested which means "indifferent" and disinterested which means "unbiased."

7. Any student wishing to sing act or perform on Class Day should sign up before tomorrow which is the deadline.

8. Governor Bush whose speeches are filled with cliches appeared on television last night asking people to "tighten their belts bite the bullet pull their own weight and give till it hurts."

9. A sad-looking mongrel which had followed me halfway home suddenly trotted up to me and staring at me soulfully started to lick my hand.

10. A story which appeared in yesterday's newspaper was about the Boston Bruins which is my favorite hockey team.

EXAMPLES: Yes, you were elected.

EXAMPLE: Behaving like a spoiled child, he pouted and sulked.

*NOTE* Do not confuse a gerund ending in –ing and used as the subject of the sentence with an introductory participial phrase.

*NOTE* A single introductory prepositional phrase need not be followed by a comma unless it is parenthetical (by the way, on the contrary, etc.) or the comma is necessary to prevent confusion.

EXAMPLES: By the way, I had a letter from Emily Post.

An adverbial clause at the end of a sentence is not usually set off:

EXERCISE 5.

This exercise covers all comma rules to this point in the chapter. Number your paper 1-10. Copy after the proper number the words in each sentence which should be followed by a comma, placing a comma after each word.

1. One look at the assignment is not enough for most students will need to study it carefully.

2. When we had finished playing the piano was rolled offstage to make room for the next act.

3. On the afternoon of the first day of school the halls were still filled with lost confused or frightened freshmen.

4. Well if you need help please don't hesitate to ask me or Mr. Tillman or Mrs. Ebbitt.

5. In the second half of the third period Flynn evaded the defense caught a twenty-yard pass and raced into the end zone.

6. Speaking in assembly yesterday Mr. Philip urged students to obey the new rules governing conduct in the cafeteria the school corridor and the parking lot.

7. Having studied the tax proposals of both political parties, Governor Winthrop who was not satisfied rejected both proposals and then presented a new plan.

8. Marchers in the long orderly picket line appeared to have the support of everyone in the crowd but the police carrying out their orders broke up the demonstration.

9. Legitimate theaters are prospering in many American cities, but the New York stage is still the goal of young actors dancers and musicians.

10. When Bill was driving our truck lurched unexplainably and we wondered whether he was failing asleep at the wheel.

An appositive is a word—with or without modifiers—that follows a noun or pronoun and identifies or explains it. An appositive phrase consists of an appositive and its modifiers.

When an appositive is so closely related to the word it modifies that it appears to be part of that word, no comma is necessary. An appositive of this kind is called a restrictive appositive. Usually it is one word.

EXAMPLES: Her cousin Raquel

EXAMPLES: I don't know, Alice, where your brother is.

The following expressions are commonly used parenthetically: I believe (think, know, hope, etc.), I am sure, on the contrary, on the other hand, after all, by the way, incidentally, in face, indeed, naturally, of course, in my opinion, for example, however, nevertheless, to tell the truth.

EXAMPLES: My parents will, I am sure, let me have the car to- night.

Knowledge of the above rule and of the expressions commonly used parenthetically is helpful in punctuating, but you should understand that your intention is what determines the punctuation that you use. If you wish the reader to pause, to regard an expression as parenthetical, set it off; if not, leave it unpunctuated. Sometimes, however, the placement of the expression in the sentence determines the punctuation. Study the following examples, noting in which ones the comma is a matter of choice and in which ones the placement of expression governs the punctuation. All the examples given illustrate standard usage.

EXERCISE 6. The following exercise covers all comma rules to this point in the chapter. Number your paper 1-20. Copy after the proper number the words in each sentence that should be followed by a comma, placing a comma after each word. Write C if the item is correct.

1. The final act a general free-for-all had the first-night audience a dignified crowd holding their sides.

2. Indeed if I knew the answer my friend would not be asking you for it.

3. The authors of this book a volume of bitter criticism have in my opinion been most unfair.

4. This painting Betty is by Emilio Sanchez an artist bom in Cuba.

5. Russian artist on the other hand must promote Communist doctrines for everyone in Russia works for the state.

6. Our plan I knew would have to succeed for there would be no second chance.

7. The nineteenth-century book El Jibaro which was written by Manuel A. Alonso is by the way considered the first Puerto Rican classic.

8. Imprisoned without warning or explanation the two reporters were held if I remember correctly for two months, in spite of efforts by England France and the United States to effect their release.

9. If you are prompt in getting your order in our office will guarantee delivery before Christmas which is only ten days off.

10. You should understand my good friend that much as I should like to do so I cannot give money to every organization that thinks it needs help.

11. Passengers riding in the front of the wrecked bus were the ones who were most severely injured.

12. This school composed largely of students from farm homes must offer courses in agriculture the occupation that most of the students will enter.

13. Looking for a sports car at a bargain price Henry who is car-crazy spent the day hanging around the North Country Motor Company which buys sells and services all makes of foreign cars.

14. Lauren and Jim left alone in the house immediately raided the

refrigerator which was full of tasty herring snacks for the party that Kay's mother was giving the next day.

15. Napoleon's brothers Joseph and Lucien tried to prevent him from selling Louisiana, but Richard Livingston and James Monroe the American representatives succeeded in making the purchase.

16. Well having tried all morning to reach me the girls delivered the message and I gave them a written reply which I hoped would be satisfactory.

17. In spite of their parents' warning Amy and Joan who should have known better stayed up reading the night before the test and didn't get to bed they admitted until two o'clock.

18. Taking an afternoon stroll in the park, my little sister Sally befriended a retriever a spaniel, and a Scottish Deer Hound named Isabel that followed her home.

19. Before you start taking anything apart Maria I hope you will be sure that you can if necessary put it together again.

20. When Jimmie had finished the cake and pie were all gone and

left untouched were the steak potatoes and salad.

EXAMPLES: Our sentimental ideas was to hold a class reunion on

June 20, 2020, at Brunswick.

Write to me at 222 Maher Avenue, Greenwich, Connecticut,

after the first of March.

Their quadruplets were born on Friday, April 13, 1066, in

Coventry, England.

*NOTE* When only the month and day are given, no punctuation is necessary.

It was on September 6 that we began school.

When the items are joined by a preposition, do not use commas.

EXAMPLES: Dear Rhonda, Sincerely yours,

EXAMPLES: Frank Lehman, Jr. Hazel Carby, Ph.D.

Commas are not to be sprinkled about in a composition as if they were salt, merely to add flavor. The tendency of modern writers is to use commas sparingly. You should be able to show either that the commas you use help the reader to understand what you have written or that they are required by custom-as in a date or address, for example. Using commas just for the fun of it is as bad as not using them when they are necessary. Your teacher will surely question your competence if you use them when they cannot be justified.

30f. Use commas to separate items in a series.

30g. Use a comma to separate two or more adjectives preceding a noun.

30k. Use commas to set off expressions that interrupt the sentence.

30l. Use a comma in certain conventional situations.

30m. Do not use unnecessary commas.

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *

Punctuation II:

Other Marks of Punctuation

Although the marks of punctuation treated in this chapter are used less frequently than the period and comma, they are often important. Just as you have learned to follow certain conventions in grammar and usage and spelling, you should observe the conventional uses of the punctuation marks described in this chapter.

31a. Use a semicolon between independent clauses not joined by and, but, or, nor, for, get.

A writer must have some basis for deciding whether to use two independent clauses with a semicolon between them, or two sentences with a period (and capital letter). In most writing, the division into sentences is preferable. A semicolon is used only when the ideas in the two clauses are so closely related that a period would make too distinct a break between them.

When the connectives mentioned in this rule are placed at the beginning of a clause, the use of a comma after them is frequently a matter of taste. When they are clearly parenthetical (interrupters) they are followed by a comma. The words for example, for instance, and that is are always followed by a comma. The word however is almost always followed by a comma.

Most of the words listed in this rule, however, are rarely used at the beginning of a clause. They are usually placed later in the clause.

*NOTE* As suggested in Rule 3lc by the words "may be needed," you are allowed considerable leeway in applying this rule. When there are -only one or two commas in the independent clauses, the semicolon is not needed. It is required when there are so many commas, as in the example above, that the sentence would be confusing without the semicolon because the reader could not immediately see where the first clause ended.

EXAMPLE:

EXAMPLES:

*NOTE* When a list comes immediately after a verb or a preposition, do not use a colon.

EXAMPLES:

EXAMPLE:

(1) Use a colon between the hour and the minute when you write the time.

EXAMPLE: 4:30 P.M.

EXAMPLE: John 3:16

EXAMPLES: Harper's 198:12 [volume and number]

EXAMPLES: Dear Ms. Terwilliger:

EXAMPLES: The Red Badge of Courage

The use of quotation marks for titles is now generally limited to short compositions such as short stories and short poems and to parts of publications; the titles of the publications themselves are underlined.

The words a, an, the, written before a title, are underlined only when they are part of the title of a book, article, etc. Before the names of magazines and newspapers, they are not underlined within a composition.

This exercise covers semicolons, colons, and italics. Number your paper 1-10. After the proper number copy from the sentence words and numbers that should be followed by a semicolon or a colon and write the punctuation after each. Copy and underline all words that should be italicized.

I. Today, fewer than 10 percent of Americans work on farms one hundred years ago, a majority of Americans worked on farms.

2. The following band members can play two instruments. Tony Winch, cornet and trumpet Sallie Davis, saxophone and clarinet and Sara Petterson, drums and marimba.

3. The Daily Blade often devotes its front page to sensational stories murders, robberies, catastrophes, kidnappings, and juicy scandals.

4. The Ten Commandments are in the Old Testament, Exodus 20 1-17 however, the Beatitudes are in the New Testament, Matthew 5 3-1 1.

5. Our sailing party, which consisted of three women and four men, went aboard the Sealark at 8 30 but we had to wait until 9 30 before our skipper, the wind, and the tides would permit us to sail.

6. Ms. Gilhooley frequently gives assignments in current magazines for example, a typical assignment would run as follows the Atlantic, 210 41-6 Senior Scholastic, 78 4 Commonweal, 74 17.

7. According to an editorial in the Times-News, the election indicates a change in the public's attitude toward tariffs the candidate who favored protective tariffs was defeated.

8. Mrs. Johnson had me revise my composition three times first, to correct the spelling second, to revise some sentences third, to remove a so's and and so's.

9. The smaller colleges are in a difficult position their income has been cut, but their expenses have increased.

10. At the bookstore I bought the following gifts a book of essays by Joan Didion for my father, a framed Mary Cassatt print, entitled Mother and Child, for my mother and for my sister, a new album called Folksong Favorites.

31i. Use quotation marks to enclose a direct quotation--a person's exact words.

A contraction is a word made up of two words combined into one by omitting one or more letters.